Study : Indonesia's natural resources are very abundant, seharus Indonesian citizens should be grateful, maintain, and melihara natural resources. Because of Indonesia's land, water, and air is still very good. But now it became polluted by man, her man should have to keep it because no natural resources humans can not live. In this globalization era, we his seharus Indonesian citizen, should be aware of because of the environment around us have started contaminated with environmentally conscious people who have not already started contaminated. My message as a nation of Indonesia
"Come Nation Indonesaia we must begin to realize that its abundant natural resources but not for polluting for in-patient and in the case" "If not us who else...!!! "
Indonesia
Indonesia (
The
Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the
7th century, when Srivijaya and then laterMajapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign
cultural, religious and political models from the earlycenturies CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural
resources. Muslim traders brought the
now-dominant Islam, while European
powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the
Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been
turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, mass slaughter, corruption,
separatism, a democratization
process, and periods of rapid
economic change.
Indonesia
consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by
a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority
Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it.
Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal
Ika"("Unity in
Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the
diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely
populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the
world's second highest level of biodiversity.
The country has abundant natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[10][11]
Contents
Etymology
The
name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indós and nèsos, which means
"island".[12] The name dates to the 18th century, far
predating the formation of independent Indonesia.[13] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist,
proposed the termsIndunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the
"Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[14] In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[15][16]However, Dutch academics writing in East
Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia.
Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); andInsulinde.[17]
After
1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside
the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political
expression.[17] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the
name through his bookIndonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels,
1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi
Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara),
when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureauin 1913.[13]
History
A Borobudur ship carved onBorobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats
may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st
century CE.[18]
Fossils
and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited byHomo erectus, popularly known as "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago and as
recently as 35,000 years ago.[19][20][21] Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[22] In 2011 evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor showing that 42,000 years ago these early
settlers were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as
tuna,[23] and that they had the technology needed to
make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands.
Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to
South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE,
and as they spread through the archipelago, pushed the indigenous Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[24] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the
mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[25] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to
flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position
fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian
kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.[26] Trade has since fundamentally shaped
Indonesian history.[27][28]
The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable
commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.
Hinduism
and Mahayana Buddhism arrived in Indonesia in the 4th and 5th century, as trade
with India intensified under the south Indian Pallava
dynasty.[29]
From
the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade
and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[30][31] Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the
agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java,
leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan.
The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the
late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada,
its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.[32]
Although
Muslim traders first traveled through Southeast Asia early in the Islamic era,
the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in
northern Sumatra.[33] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted
Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the
16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing
cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam
in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[34] The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of
Indonesia began in 1512, when
Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb
pepper in Maluku.[35]Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602
the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power.
Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the
government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[36]
For
most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of
coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend
to what was to become Indonesia's present boundaries.[37] Japanese occupation during the Second World War ended Dutch rule[38][39] and encouraged the previously suppressed
Indonesian independence movement.[40] A later UN report stated that four million
people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[41] Two days after the surrender of Japan in
August 1945, Sukarno,
an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed President.[42][43][44] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their
rule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure,
the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence[43][45] with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia
following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969 [46] which was questionable and has resulted in a
longtime independence movement.[47]
Sukarno, Indonesia's founding President.
Sukarno
moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his
power base by balancing the opposing forces of themilitary and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[48] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup
and effectively destroyed.[49][50][51] Around 500,000 people are estimated to have
been killed.[52][53] The head of the military, General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically weakened
Sukarno and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration[54] was supported by the US government,[55][56][57] and encouraged foreign direct investmentin Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three
decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New
Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of
political opposition.[38][58][59]
Indonesia
was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.[60] This led to popular protest against the New
Order which led toSuharto's resignation in May 1998.[61] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from
Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation
of repression of the East Timorese.[62] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of
democratic processeshas included a
regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social
unrest,corruption, and terrorism slowed progress;
however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although
relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious,
sectarian discontent and violence have persisted.[63] A political settlement to an armed separatist
conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[64]
Government and politics
A session of the People's Representative
Council in Jakarta
Indonesia
is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is
concentrated in the central government. Following theresignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental
structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[65] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.[66] The president of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance,
policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of
ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The
2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected
the president and vice president.[67] The president may serve a maximum of two
consecutive five-year terms.[68]
The
highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and
amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad
outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[69] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.[70] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the
executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[66] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the
DPR's role in national governance.[71] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of
regional management.[72]
Most
civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are
heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation
appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court,
which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court
(Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the
government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes
concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political
parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious
Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.[73]
Foreign relations and military
President of IndonesiaSusilo Bambang Yudhoyonowith Barack Obama, thePresident of United States, in ceremony at the Istana Merdeka in Jakarta, 9 November 2010. Obama has become
popular in Indonesia due to the years he spent in Jakarta as a child.[74]
In
contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have
been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[75] Indonesia maintains close relationships with
its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[70] The nation restored relations with the
People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since
anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.[73] Indonesia has been a member of the United
Nations since 1950,[76] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now
theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation).[70] Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group,
and the WTO, and has historically
been a member of OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no
longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and
development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western
Europe, Australia, and Japan.[70]
The
Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and
prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamismand Al-Qaeda.[77] The deadliest bombing killed 202 people
(including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002.[78] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings
issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.[79]
Indonesia's
armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI–AU).[80] The army has about 400,000 active-duty
personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and
is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests
and foundations.[81] One of the reforms following the 1998
resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in
parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.[82]
Separatist
movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and
subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[83][84] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war
between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached
in 2005.[85] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit
imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in
the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang
Yudhoyono.[86]
Administrative divisions
Administratively,
Indonesia consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each
province has its own legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided
into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota),
which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua and West
Papua), and again into administrative villages (eitherdesa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). Village is the lowest level of government
administration in Indonesia. Furthermore, a village is divided into several
community groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into
neighbourhood groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). In Java the desa (village) is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), these units are the same as
Rukun-Warga. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in
2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units,
responsible for providing most government services. The village administration
level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles matters of
a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).
The
provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater
legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central
government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has
the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003,
it instituted a form of Sharia Law (Islamic law).[87] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special
Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans
during the Indonesian Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a
republic.[88] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was
granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in February 2003.[89][90] Jakarta is the country's special capital
region.
Indonesian provinces and their capitals,
listed by region
Indonesian
name is in parentheses if different from English.
* indicates provinces with Special Status
* indicates provinces with Special Status
Geography
Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic
activity is among the world's highest.
Indonesia
lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It consists of
17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.[91] These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea (shared with Papua
New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on
Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the
island of Timor. Indonesia shares maritime borders across
narrow straits with Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Palau to the
north, and with Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is
the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.[92]
At
1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the
world's 15th-largest country in terms of land area and world's 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea and land area.[93] Its average population density is
134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the
world,[94] although Java, the world's most populous
island,[95] has a population density of 940 people
per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 metres
(16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of
1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest
rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the
island's river settlements.[96]
Indonesia's
location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active
volcanoes,[97] including Krakatoa and Tambora,
both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption
of the Toba supervolcano,
approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern
Sumatra,[98] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high
agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population
densities of Java and Bali.[99]
Lying
along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the
lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70.1–125.0 inches), and up to
6,100 millimeters (240 inches) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas –
particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and
Papua – receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging
about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily
temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).[100]
Biota and environment
Indonesia's
size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second
highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),[101] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian
and Australasian species.[102] The islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once
linked to the Asian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species
such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but
numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately
60% of the country.[103] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are
predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more
densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and
agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku – having been long separated
from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and
fauna.[104] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and
is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird
species.[105]
Indonesia
is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its
1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[106] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 miles)
of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's
high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries,mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island
ecosystems.[12] Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's greatest diversity
of coral reef fish with more than 1,650 species in eastern
Indonesia only.[107] The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the
distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[108] Known as theWallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge
of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian;
moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.[109] The region of islands between his line and New
Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[108]
Indonesia's
high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due
to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[110] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western
Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and
environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[110] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands
make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.[111] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species,
including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened,
and 15 identified as critically endangered, including Bali Starling,[112] Sumatran Orangutan,[113] and Javan
Rhinoceros.[112] Much of Indonesia's deforestation is caused by
forest clearing for the palm oil Industry, which has cleared 18 million
hectares of forest for palm oil expansion. Palm oil expansion requires land
reallocation as well as changes to the local and natural ecosystems. Palm oil
expansion can generate wealth for local communities, if done right. If done
wrong, it can degrade ecosystems and cause social conflicts.[114]
Economy
Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture had
been the country's largest employer for centuries.
Indonesia
has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and
government play significant roles.[115] The country is the largest economy in
Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies.[116] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal), as of 2012 was US$928.274 billion with
estimated nominal per capita GDP was US$3,797, and per capita GDP PPP was
US$4,943 (international dollars).[117] The gross domestic product (GDP) is about $1
trillion[4] and the debt ratio to the GDP is 26%.[118] According to World Bankaffiliated report based on 2011 data, the
Indonesian economy was the world's 10th largest by nominal GDP (PPP based), with the country
contributing 2.3 percent of global economic output.[119][120] The industry sector is the economy's largest and accounts for
46.4% of GDP (2012), this is followed by services (38.6%) and agriculture
(14.4%). However, since 2012, the service sector has employed more people than other sectors,
accounting for 48.9% of the total labor force, this has been followed by
agriculture (38.6%) and industry (22.2%).[121]Agriculture, however, had been the country's
largest employer for centuries.[122][123]
According
to World Trade Organization data, Indonesia was the 27th biggest exporting country in the
world in 2010, moving up three places from a year before.[124] Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are
Japan (17.28%), Singapore (11.29%), the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major
suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%), and
Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of
US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has
extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and
gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals,
fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil
and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.[91]
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's
largest commercial center.
The tourism sector contributes to around US$9 billion of foreign exchange in 2012,
and ranked as the 4th largest among goods and services export sectors.[125] Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, China and
Japan are the top five source of visitors to Indonesia.
In
the 1960s the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political
instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism,
which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall
in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation,
shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at
minimal capacity, and negligibleinvestment.
Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order
administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down,
stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.
(See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast
Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export
revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates,
averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.[126]Following further reforms in the late 1980s,[127] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia,
particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an
average of over 7%.[128][129]
Indonesia
was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. During the crisis there were sudden and large
capital outflows leading the rupiah to go into free fall. Against the US dollar
the rupiah dropped from about Rp 2,600 in late 1997 to a low point of
around Rp 17,000 some months later and the economy shrank by a remarkable
13.7%. These developments led to widespread economic distress across the economy
and contributed to the political crisis of 1998 which saw Suharto resign as
president.[130] The rupiah later stabilised in the Rp. 8,000
range[131] and economic growth returned to 4% per year by
2000.[132] However, the currency still fluctuates,
dropping below Rp 11,000 per dollar in September 2013. In addition, corruption
has been a persistent problem. Transparency International, for example, has
since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index.[133][134] Since 2007, however, with the improvement in
banking sector and domestic consumption, national economic growth has
accelerated to over 6% annually[135][136][137]and this helped the country weather the
2008–2009 global recession.[138] The Indonesian economy performed strongly
during the Global Financial Crisis and in 2012 its GDP grew by over 6%.[139] The country regained its investment grade
rating in late 2011 after losing it in the 1997.[140] However, as of 2012, an estimated 11.7% of the
population lived below the poverty line and the official open unemployment rate
was 6.1%.[91]
Demographics
Balinese children. There are around 300 distinct native
ethnicities in Indonesia.
According
to the 2010 national census, the population of Indonesia is 237.6 million,[141] with high population growth at 1.9%.[142] 58% of the population lives in Java,[141] the world's most populous island.[95] In 1961 the first post-colonial census gave a
total population of 97 million.[143] Population is expected to grow to around 269
million by 2020 and 321 million by 2050.[144]
There
are around 300 distinct native ethnic groups in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.[145][146] Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian-speaking
peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto-Austronesian (PAn), which
possibly originated inTaiwan. Another major
grouping are Melanesians,
who inhabit eastern Indonesia.[92][147][148] The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are
politically and culturally dominant.[149] The Sundanese,
ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.[150] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists
alongside strong regional identities.[151] Social, religious and ethnic tensions have
triggered horrendous violence.[152][153][154] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising 3–4% of the
population.[155] Much of the country's privately owned commerce
and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled.[156][157] Chinese businesses in Indonesia are part of
the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of
Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.[158] This has contributed to considerable
resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.[159][160][161]
The Istiqlal Mosque in Central Jakarta. Indonesia is the world's most populous
Muslim-majority nation.
The
official national language is Indonesian,
a form of Malay. It is based on the prestige dialect of Malay, that of the Johor-Riau Sultanate, which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago, standards of which are the
official languages in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. Indonesian is universally
taught in schools, consequently it is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is
the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It
was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia on the proclamation of independence in 1945. Most Indonesians
speak at least one of theseveral hundred local languages and dialects, often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of
the largest ethnic group.[91] On the other hand, Papua has over 270
indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages,[162] in a region of about 2.7 million people.
While
religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,[163] the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam,Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Confucianism.[164] Indonesia is the world's most populous
Muslim-majority nation, at 87.2% in 2010, with the majority being Sunni (99%).[165][166] On 21 May 2011 the Indonesian Sunni-Shia Council (MUHSIN) was established. The council
aims to hold gatherings, dialogues and social activities. It was an answer to
violence committed in the name of religion.[167] Seven percent of the population was Christian,
1.7% Hindu, and 0.9% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,[168] and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.[169] Though now minority religions, Hinduism and
Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of
traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.[170] Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese
colonialists and missionaries,[171][172] and the Protestant denominations are largely a
result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's
colonial period.[173][174][175] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the
Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local
customs and beliefs.[176]
Education in Indonesia is compulsory for twelve years.[177][178] Parents can choose between state-run, non
sectarian public schools supervised by the Department of National Education
(Depdiknas) or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools
supervised and financed by the Department of Religious Affairs.[179] The enrolment rate is 94% for primary
education (2011), 75% for secondary education, and 27% for tertiary education.
The literacy rate is 93% (2011).[180]
Culture
Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) inWayang Purwa type, depicting fivePandava, from left to right: Bhima,Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula,
andSahadeva, Indonesia Museum, Jakarta.
Indonesia
has about 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities developed over
centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources.
Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu
culture and mythology, as dowayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat, ulos and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that
vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese,
Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant.
Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often
associated with illegal gambling.[181] The most popular sports are badminton and football. Indonesian players have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's
badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it has been held since 1949,
as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status
in 1992. Its women have won the Uber Cup, the female
equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in 1994 and 1996. Liga
Indonesia is the country's
premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a
history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.
A selection of Indonesian food, including ikan bakar (roasted fish),ayam goreng (fried chicken), nasi timbel (rice wrapped in
banana leaf),sambal, fried tempeh and tofu, andsayur asem.
Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle
Eastern, and Indian precedents.[182] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental
ingredients.[183] Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in
Indonesia,[184] although it declined significantly in the
early 1990s.[185] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of
Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.[184]
The
oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century.
Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who
criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; SumatransMuhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were
influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;[186] and proletarian writerPramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.[187][188] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly
rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their
cultural identities.[189]
Media freedom in Indonesia
increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which
the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic
media, and restricted foreign media.[190] The TV market includes ten national commercial
networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and
foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,[191] Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in
September 2009.[192]More than 30 million cell phones are sold in
Indonesia each year, and 27% of them are local brands.[193]
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar